Civilization And Its Discontents

Some people respond to society’s repression of sexual instincts by becoming neurotic; others react by pairing off and engaging in intense romantic relationships in which “no room is left for any interest in the surrounding world” (49). Still, society persists in trying to harness sexual energies. One way is through the directive to “love thy neighbour as thyself” (50). This instruction creates problems: Freud points out that “my love is valued as a privilege by all those belonging to me; it is an injustice to them if I put a stranger on a level with them” (50); the stranger, meanwhile, “does not show me the slightest consideration. If it will do him any good, he has no hesitation in injuring me” (51). Thus, to fulfill such an ethical calling is to invite others to do evil. Freud cites history to prove his point that “ aggressive cruelty usually lies in wait for some provocation […] and reveals men as savage beasts to whom the thought of sparing their own kind is alien” (52). He refers to the Mongol invasion, the Sack of Jerusalem, and the First World War. Thus, the admonition to love one’s neighbor may serve to reduce savagery by attempting the opposite, though “nothing is so completely at variance with original human nature as this” (53).

Try as they might societies achieve only limited success in thwarting human wickedness: “[T]he law is not able to lay hands on the more discreet and subtle forms in which human aggressions are expressed” (53). Everyone is, at one time or another, subjected to cruelties from others. Freud goes on to discuss the various attempts cultures have made to address this problem.

Communism tries to solve aggression by removing private property, so that all have an equal share and need not struggle against others. This strategy doesn’t work, however, because human selfishness “did not arise as the result of property; it reigned almost supreme in primitive times when possessions were still extremely scanty” (54). The instinct also continues in the competition for love, for mates.

Another solution is to promote small, cohesive communities that unite in their opposition to their neighbors. Freud points to the English and Scottish who ridicule each other out of what he terms “narcissism in respect of minor differences” (55). This “relatively harmless” (55) attempt to keep peace can fail spectacularly, however; Freud refers to the wide-spread Christian intolerance of outsiders, German anti-Semitism, Communist anti-bourgeois purges, and the like.

Given these failures, it is understandable that the sacrifices society demands will leave many individuals unhappy: “Civilized man has exchanged some part of his chances of happiness for a measure of security” (56). A society may try to increase its members’ happiness, but ultimately there may be “certain difficulties inherent in the very nature of culture which will not yield to any efforts at reform” (58).