In the Shadow of Man

Adolescence in chimps begins at age eight and ends at age 13-15, when they’re sexually mature and rank as adults in their group. Goodall wonders if this “difficult and frustrating time” (173) is even worse for males than for females. She believes that an adolescent male’s relationship with his mother is one of the best “stabilizing factors” during adolescence. Goodall claims that most males show respect for their mothers even as adolescents; for example, if Goodall offered a mother-son pair a banana, the son allowed the mother to take it. Likewise, mothers continue to take a special interest in their son’s welfare and try to defend him during attacks. Both adolescent and adult males act to protect their mothers as they become older and more confident.

Goodall explains that adolescent males tend to be cautious around adult males, since any perceived slight will likely be harshly punished. She questions why adolescent males bother to spend time with adult males since they’re often beaten by them. She notes that these conflicts are usually quickly forgiven, but that it’s crucial for the young chimps that the adult male reassures them after their punishment. Goodall claims that adolescent male chimps seek out male companionship, despite its risks, because of the chance to observe adult males, whose behavior they emulate as they age. Adolescent females simply learn from their mothers.

Similar to humans, developing into an adult is gradual in chimps, and no particular age determines when chimps are adults. Goodall points to the example of Pepe, whom she observed gradually change into an adult. One day, he exhibited many adult behaviors, such as being strong and muscular, accessing food before younger juveniles, grooming calmly with his mom, and showing tolerance and affection for his younger siblings.

Goodall explains that chimps grow up fatherless, and don’t know which male is their father. For chimps, nuclear families are mothers and offspring of different ages. Goodall considers males’ lack of involvement in family life a major difference between humans and chimps. She compares the often large human family with the small family groups of chimps. Whether chimp grandchildren ever join these groups, or if they separate to form another, is unclear. Goodall identifies several parallels between human and chimp behavior and sexuality: Males tend to gather in groups away from women, and males are often promiscuous. Some major differences include the lack of monogamy and lack of same-sex relationships in chimp groups.

Goodall argues that chimps’ sex lives are similar to those of many young people, since they’re promiscuous but refuse some mates. For example, when in estrus Gigi and Fifi both resisted Humphrey’s advances, and ran away from him screaming. Some more aggressive males force females, whether in estrus or not, to accompany them. This kind of interaction often results in aggression, as it did when male Leakey forced Fifi and Olly to follow him around, and eventually attacked them when they resisted. Not all heterosexual relationships are so aggressive, however: Rodolf and Flo had a gentle and symbiotic companionship that lasted for many weeks.

The author explores female chimps’ sexuality, explaining that females experience fertility, or estrus, only when they’re not pregnant or nursing. This means that many adult females are infertile for years at a time. Goodall questions why female chimps have evolved large pink swellings on their genitalia when they’re fertile. One theory is that it’s an obvious signal to male chimps, who may not be traveling closely with the females. However, Goodall doubts this, since baboons travel together but the females still experience swellings. Additionally, orangutans have little contact with each other but the females don’t swell during estrus. Goodall concludes that this aspect of chimp sexuality remains a mystery. Younger females experience estrus more often than older ones and may become fertile as soon as 13 months after having an infant.

Goodall compares the difference in emotions and bonding between human and chimp mates, calling this facet of our lives “the deepest part of the gulf between them and us” (194). Chimps display little tenderness in their sexual relationships, which are marked by “a lack of consideration for each others’ feelings,” and Goodall contrasts this with “the protectiveness, the tolerance, and the spiritual exhilaration that are the hallmarks of human love in its truest and deepest sense” (194). Goodall recounts her nighttime observations of adult chimps sleeping in separate nests, emphasizing this difference in human and chimp companionship. Relaying a story about Mr. McGregor hastily pursuing a female chimp, who fled out of her nest, Goodall reiterates that chimps’ sexual overtures can be very aggressive and abrupt.