The Travels of Sir John Mandeville

Mandeville explains the origin of the title “khan.” After Noah’s Flood, his sons divided up the world between them. Ham became the most powerful; he had many sons and began calling himself “Lord of the World.” Among his descendants were the Mongols, who call their ruler “khan” (“Ham” in their language) both in honor of Ham and because they are now the greatest rulers in the world.

Continuing to recount Mongol history, Mandeville turns to how they rose to power. One hundred and sixty years ago, they were herdsmen divided into seven tribes and subject to all the people around them. One day, a poor old man called Genghis (called Chaanguys by Mandeville) had a vision that he would unite the tribes and conquer in God’s name. The members of the other tribes rejected his vision until the next night, when they too had visions telling them to unite. Once emperor, Genghis decided to test the loyalty of the tribes by making a code of laws that organized their military and ensured obedience to the khan. He then commanded the leaders of the tribes to kill one of their sons for him, which all did. When he saw they would follow him, he led them to war and conquered many places.

When Genghis was dying, he instructed his sons to stick together because together they would be invincible. Mandeville then gives a history of the later khans and their conquests, including a time they conquered the Holy Land; Mandeville says they intended to restore it to Christianity, but then their khan became a Muslim. Mandeville urges his readers to realize that Cathay is the greatest kingdom on Earth and that the khan is the greatest ruler. He again mourns that the khan is not a Christian but celebrates his religious tolerance.

Moving on to the organization of the khan’s court and his festivals, Mandeville says there are four main festivals a year: the khan’s birthday, the anniversary of his circumcision, and two festivals celebrating an idol that speaks and performs miracles. The festivals are minutely organized, feature ostentatious displays of wealth, and involve philosophers leading others in rituals of obedience to the khan. These philosophers can tell whenever someone wants to make war on the khan and warn him of this so he can send his armies against his enemies quickly.

After detailing more facts about the khan’s life and realm (including the use of paper money and the khan’s preference for Christian doctors), Mandeville explains that whenever the khan moves anywhere, a great host accompanies him. The marches are intricately planned, the khan and his family riding chariots made of wood from the Earthly Paradise.

The administration of the khan’s empire is divided into 12 provinces, each of which has its own king, and these kings have sub-kings who are subservient to them. To circle the khan’s realm would take seven years, but a system of royal horse posts has been established so that news can quickly be brought to the khan. Mandeville then repeats his praises of the khan and wishes for his conversion, highlighting how Christians praise the khan whenever he passes.

He ends the chapter by noting that Mongol men have many wives and marry the wives of their dead relatives.

Mandeville describes how the Mongols live and reveals that the khan he met was called Thyak. When at war, the Mongols are fierce and untrustworthy, but they believe one day they will be defeated by a people who use arrows and that these people will convert them. They do not yet know who this people will be. Mandeville warns the reader about Mongol tactics and notes that while they are good at conquering, they are less skilled at governing.

The Mongols bury their dead in open plains. When the khan dies, they bury him in a huge grave with a mare, foal, riches, and food next to him so he does not lack these things when he arrives in the next world. In the afterlife, the khan is also a great ruler. Once the khan has died, he cannot be mentioned in the presence of his friends. They elect a new leader who is usually the son or nearest relation of the old one, and this leader receives gifts and oaths of loyalty.

Mandeville states that Cathay is in “Asia the deep” and begins to trace a route back toward Europe. To Cathay’s west is the Kingdom of Tarshish (Tharse), a Christian place where one of the Three Kings who visited Jesus came from. To the west of this is Turkestan (corresponding to parts of modern-day Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, and China), which reaches Persia in the west and Khorasan in the north. Its people are mostly herdsmen. Moving through Khorasan (where there is no wine but good warriors), one reaches Cumania (Comania). It is a large land, but much of it is either too hot or too cold for living. This land extends to Russia and Prussia, and through it runs the Volga River. The Volga freezes so deeply that armies of 100,000 clash on it during winter. It runs to the Black Sea, by the Caucasus Mountain range, where Alexander the Great built a city to guard the mountain passes.

India can be reached through Cumania from Persia and Turkestan or from the Black Sea to the land of Abkhasia. All these territories belong to the khan.

Now that Mandeville has covered the lands between Cathay and Russia, he wants to talk about the places between Cathay and the Aegean. Since the emperor of Persia is the greatest ruler after the khan and Prester John, Mandeville will focus on him first. The Persian ruler has two kingdoms, one running east from the Oxus River to Turkestan and the other running west from the Oxus to Media and Armenia.

After a brief description of Armenia, Media, and Georgia, Mandeville moves on to a “great marvel” in Abkhasia. In this land is an area that is entirely covered in darkness that was caused by God. A Persian emperor named Sharpur II persecuted Christians, leading an army to find and kill them. Eventually, the Christian population fled, and as they were chased by Sharpur, they prayed for salvation. God therefore trapped Sharpur and his army forever in a land of darkness. Mandeville hopes this story of a miracle inspires Christians to be more devout, to stop sinning, and to set their eyes on world sovereignty, as the tale shows God is always ready to help the faithful.

In the kingdoms of Georgia and Abkhasia, there are many Christians who show more devotion than Western Christians. West from here is Turkey, which contains many fine cities and borders Chaldea. Chaldea is a flat area next to Mesopotamia, the land between the Euphrates and the Tigris rivers. South of Mesopotamia are the great deserts, which themselves are bordered by Ethiopia, Nubia, and Mauretania.

Mandeville now wants to talk about the lands beyond Cathay. Going from Cathay toward India will lead one to a place called Cadhilhe (Caldilhe), where fruits grow as large as gourds. Inside these fruits is an animal that looks like a lamb without wool; both the creature and the fruit are eaten. Mandeville told the people of this country that he did not think this was a marvel because in England there is a tree with fruits that become flying birds—a reference to an English legend that geese grow on trees.

Nearby are the Caucasus Mountains, where the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel are trapped inside. These tribes are called by many Gog and Magog and were driven into the mountains by Alexander the Great. Though he could not kill them all, he prayed to God (despite being a pagan) and was able to force them underground. Mandeville describes this area as the only land in the world where Jews rule; however, they must pay tribute to the queen of the Amazons, who guards the exits to their mountains. When the end times begin, a fox will find a way to dig out these tribes, and they will emerge to attack Christendom.

Travel is common between the Caucasus mountains and Bactria (northern Afghanistan), where men are evil and where half-horse, half-men hybrids live. Many griffons also live there and are strong enough to carry two oxen at once. From Bactria, people can go to Prester John’s kingdom in India.